By 1654, Quakerism was expanding southward across England to London,
the West Country, and into non-Puritan strongholds. Nayler became a major preacher in the greater London area. Converts were found
in all classes of society especially "of the middling sort" and in the
rural areas. There was a large active female membership. Some estimates
suggest up to sixty thousand Quaker converts by 1660.
Quakerism before the Restoration (1660) was a political, social and
religious movement. Like the Levellers and the Surrey Diggers, Quakers
rejected the privileged structure of English society. They envisioned
a new Society based on their own religious views of all godly men possessing
the same internal Light or Spirit of Christ.
All men were equal in the inner light of the Spirit. This being true,
than Man only needed to embrace the Spirit to be one with the Spirit
before all Men. Unfortunately for the Quakers, this religious view did
not find favor among the wealthy status quo, or other religious sects.
Quakers denounced much of what they considered ungodly or corrupting
influences within Society. For the Quaker the true believer is moved
by the Spirit to witness before all men with the "indwelling life of
Christ". The Spirit was for this reason more important than the Scriptures.
The Spirit revealed the true meaning of the Scriptures. The Bible was
not the Word of God for the Quaker.
Quakers believed in a Universal Salvation or "free will" for all men
rather than the predestination of Calvinism. All men could thus be saved
from sin by the "Indwelling Light". This permitted the attainment of
a form of "religious perfection" which often led to bizarre behavior
or visions by some early Quakers as a sign of this divine approbation.
Charges of Antinomianism, a lack of Moral Law, were raised against the Quakers. As with the
Ranters and the Adamites, a form of holy nudism was practiced
by some of these early Quakers as a rejection of the worldly values
of Society. These individuals helped to contributed to the general feeling
of unrest among the general public.
Reports of curing the sick and working miracles were attributed to
some early Quakers as the attainment of a higher spiritual level. Long
fasts were undertaken as protests by some Quaker leaders including:
George Fox, Richard Hubberthorne (1628-1662),
and James Parnell (1637?-1656) who died of thirst.
Quakerism had a strong anticlerical bent rejecting all ordinations
or administrative structure. No sacramental or ceremonial traditions
of worship to detract the individual from the Inward Light of God.
Like the Seekers before them, Quaker meetings were a time to wait in
silence, and to contemplate God. Having no official clergy, lay preachers
often women would officiate at meetings.
Quakers rejected a number of traditional doctrines. Among these were
the orthodox doctrines of the Holy Trinity. God was indwelling, not
in the Stars; "The Kingdom of God was in Man". Heaven, Hell and the
Resurrection were stages of internal development through the Spirit.
Christ as the "Lamb of God" and "the propitiation of Our sins" was
not validated in their theological view. Christ's flesh and blood are
within the saints. Christ would not come at the Last Judgment.
In addition to their religious beliefs, Quakers rejected most of the
civil legal authorities and their laws. Public oaths, the payment of
tithes to the state Church or its ministers were considered illegal.
Quakers were know to speak very harshly according by the standards
of the day to other non-Quakers for its shock value. Quakers had a propensity
for disrupting the religious services of other groups. The very social
fabric of society was being called into question. This brought the Quaker
and their radical theology of change into direct conflict with the State
and the Church authorities.
Quakers adopted their own distinctive form and style of dress to identify
them as distinct and separate from the worldly values of Man. Many of
these traditions were developed by George Fox during his early years.
Certain customs of address and speech in the familiar "Thee" and "Thou"
were developed as outward signs of separation. Even the hat protocols
of not doffing ones hat, or removing it as a sign of respect or deference
to persons of authority, or social status were well established.
In October 1656, James Nayler (1618?-1660), a prominent
Quaker leader was arrested for riding into Bristol on an horse attended
by a group of women. The women had claimed Nayler to be the new Messiah.
Nayler and the women were promptly arrested by the local authorities and sent off to London for trial.
Nayler was characterized as belonging to a more radical or
"Ranter" wing of the sect. Some critics of the day often claimed
that the Quakers and the Ranters were two faces of the same coin. The
Quakers being the more polished of the two.
Parliament attempted to use the Bristol incident as a pretext to quash the
rising tide of Quakerism and to raise public fears of the sect. Nayler
was tried and sent to prison only just escaping the death penalty. He
was released in 1659. Nayler was reconciled with his old friend George
Fox before his own death in 1660.
This single incident help to raise the general level of anxiety through
out the Commonwealth against the Quakers. The Instrument of Government
(1653) which allowed religious toleration was being called into question
by many civic and religious leaders. The old Elizabethan
Vagrancy Act, and the Lord's Day Act (1657)
were enacted to assist local authorities in helping to keep the Quakers
and other radicals in check.
As with the puritan separatists before them, the Quakers would find
a new home in the American Colonies. In 1657, the voyage of the Woodhouse
(Ship) was undertaken for the settlement of Quakers in modern day New
York (State).
Quakers came into conflict with other sects of the period. Quakers
vied with the Baptists, and the Presbyterians. The Muggletonians had
a long term paper war with George Fox and the Quakers. Quakers were
not strangers to military service during this period. Both the New Model
Army and the Royal Navy found Quakers within their ranks.
During the Interregnum (1649-60), the Quakers were associated with some
radical fringe groups including the Fifth Monarchy Men. After 1650, the
Quakers and the Fifth Monarchy Men were last potential military opponents
to the government.
The period between 1656-59 was a period of escalating social unrest
of which a considerable part was attributed to the "pending" Quaker
uprisings. In 1660, one Mary Dyer (d. 1660) was executed
as a Quaker. This perception of public fear for the Quakers may have
helped to facilitating a dialogue between various conservative groups
and the Monarchy which led to the success of the Restoration (1660).
Venner's Uprising (1661) saw the
last vestiges of unrest against the Monarchy. Thomas Venner, a leader
of a military faction of the Fifth Monarchy Men, who had made attempts
against Oliver Cromwell in 1658. The first few days of Jan. 1661, a
small group of Fifth Monarchy Men, Baptists and some 4000 Quakers attempted
to overthrow the civil government in London.
It was a final attempt to undermine
the establishment of the new central government at the Restoration(1660).
After a few days of of local fighting the rebel forces were defeated
and arrested. The ring leaders were tried and sentenced to death. Many
of their supporters were arrested and sent to prison.
The Quakers provided a home for many of the Interregnum sects, including:
Behmenists, Ranters, Seekers and others. Like the Seekers, Quakers offered
a quite venue away from most of the radical sects especially after the
Restoration (1660).
With the Restoration (1660), the more militant message of the earlier
Quaker leadership and the use of violence needed to change. Emphasis
was now being redirected to the individual and the "Indwelling
Spirit" and the rejection of the worldly nature of man.
George Fox soon found himself charged and sent to prison on charges
against the Crown. In 1669, George Fox married Margaret Fell
(1614-1702), the widow of Judge Fell.
By 1670 most of the early Quaker leaders were dead. The remaining leaders
such as Thomas Salthouse (1630-1691), George
Whitehead (1636-1723), and of course George Fox were attempting
to establish a new moderate Quakerism and with it a new face to the
Crown.
William Penn (1644-1718) came from a prominent English
family, he was a wealthy merchant and a prominent Quaker himself. Penn
obtained Letters of Patent to establish a Quaker colony on private lands
in the area of East New Jersey and Pennsylvania, American Colonies in
1682.
Quakerism made a dramatic change of direction from its pre-Restoration
(1660) view of Society. Quakers with their more moderate beliefs would
prosper and grow on American soil. The Quakers suffered for their faith,
but were able to find a place for themselves in Society unlike many
other dissent sects of the Interregnum period.
A SELECT QUAKER BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
[Anon.] A total rout, or abrief discovery, of a pack
of knaves and drabs, intituled pimps, panders, hectors, trapans, nappers
mobs, and spanners: the description oftheir qualities are set down in
brief. (1653) [Thomason Tracts: 246:669.f17(56)][Wing
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[Anon.] A declaration from the harmles & innocent
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world, ... [1660] [EEb, 1641-1700 ; 594:17]
[Anon.] The Prisoners' Defense Supported, or an answer
to the charges and allegations of George Markham, vicar of Carlton,
in Yorkshire, contained in his book entitled, "More truth for the seekers"
(1798)
[Anon.] A True Narrative of the Examination, Tryall ...
of James Naylor (1657)
Adams, T., and Farnsworth, Richard. An Easter-Reckoning
(1656)
Beckham, Edward, 1637?-1714. A Brief Discovery of Some of the
Blasphemos and Seditious Principles of the People, called Quakers
(1699)
______. The principles of the Quakers further shewn to be blasphemous
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Benson, Gervase, d.1679. An ansvver to John Gilpin's book, published
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[EEb, 1641-1700: 1582:41] [Wing B1899]
______., The cry of the oppressed from their oppressions,
... (1656) [EEb, 1641-1700 ; 167:10] [Wing B1900]
Berwicke, John, fl. 1660. A Answer to a Quaker Seventeen Heads
of Queries (1660)
[Besse, Joseph, 1683?1757], An Abstract of the Sufferings
of the People Call'd Quakers, ( 3 vols., 1733-8)
______. A Collection of the Suffereings of the People Called
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Crook, John, 1617-1699. A defence of the true church called Quakers
(come and coming out of wildernesse, Babylon, and the dark night of
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of holinesse, there to worship the Lord in spirit and truth) against
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a peaceful and & goldly people there, by them nick-names Quakers
... (1654) [EEb, 1641-1700 ; 1092:15] [Wing F1895]
______. A warning from the Lord to all such as hang down the
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... (1654) [EEb, 1641-1700 ; 1504:15] [Wing F1980A]
______. A declaration against all Popery, and Popish points :
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{ESTCR224581]
______. A declaration of the ground of error & errors, blasphemy,
blasphemers, and blasphemies, ... (1657) [Wing B1900]
______. A paper sent forth into the world from them that are
scornfully called Quakers (1657) [EEb, 1641-1700 ; 1592:58]
[Wing F1875]
______. Something concerning silent meetings [1657]
[EEb, 1641-1700 ; 1331:20] [Wing F1909A][ESTCR26721]
______. The pearle found in England, ... (1658) [EEb]
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______. Of bowings, shewing such as are not to bow, nor worship
... (1657) [Wing F1869]
______. A Declaration from the Harmles & Innocent People
of God Called Quakers [1661]
______. Something in Answer to Lodowick Muggleton's Book, Which
he calls: The Quakers Neck Broken (1667)
______. A journal or historical account of the life, travels,
sufferings, Christian experiences, and labour of love, in the work of
the monistry of that ancient, eminent and faithful servant of Jesus
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______. [Another ed.] (1765)
______. The Journal of George Fox (2 vols.; 1852)
______. (Penney, N. ed.) ( 2 vols.; 1911)
______. [Another ed.](1975 ed.)
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______. An evident demonstration of Gods elect which clearly
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[Wing F630]
______. A declaration and an information from us the people of
God called Quakers: ... (1660) [Wing F628]
______. [Another ed.] [EEb, 1641-1700; 981:18]
______. The examination and tryall of Margaret Fell and George
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______. A call to the universall seed of God throughout the
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______. A brief collection of remarkable passages and occurences
relating to birth, education, life, conversion, travels, services, and
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Gilpin, John, d. 17th cent. The Quakers shaken (1655)
H[igginson], Francis, 1617-1670. A Brief Relation of
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[M., J.] The ranters last sermon. With the manner of
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The third day of the week, being the 2 of August 1654.
Markham, George. More truth for the seekers; or, The charges
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______. The watcher, or, The stone cut out of the mountains without
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______. A triall of faith, ... (1656) [EEb 1641-1700
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... (1671)
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